隐私权作为一种特殊且重要的人格权,需要法律的保护。由于社会角色的特殊性,明星的隐私权较之普通民众的隐私权有所不同,尤其是在它与公众知情权、舆论监督权发生冲突的时候。这种不同表现为:一方面,为满足大众知情权,明星的隐私权就应当受到一定程度的限制;另一方面,新闻自由的行使不得侵犯明星与社会公共利益无关的基本隐私。这体现了明星隐私权、公众知情权和舆论监督权发生冲突时的权利衡平,这即要求对明星的隐私权加以特殊的限制和保护。
一、隐私权的含义
隐私权(The Right to Privacy)的理论产生于美国。Privacy这个术语有时被解释为不受他人干扰的权利,不得侵犯的私生活或者不得将他人的私生活非法公开的权利要求。隐私权在许多法律制度中都是未被完全认可的法律权益,有时依据违反信任、违反合同、诽谤、或者妨害行为等理由可以对侵犯他人的隐私行为的后果予以救济。首先,联合国大会1948年通过的《世界人权宣言》第十二条和1966年的《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》第十七条做了保护公民隐私权的有关规定。然后的1974年,美国通过了《隐私权法》,其中第二条规定:"隐私权是受合众国保护的基本人权。"
所谓“隐私”,大致应该具有两个要件,一是“隐”,二是“私”。前者是指某个事物或者某种信息不为人所知的事实状态;而后者则是指纯粹个人的,与社会公共利益和集体利益无关的事情,这是隐私权的本质所在。因此,隐私乃是一种与公共利益无关的,当事人不愿他人知道或他人不便知道的信息,当事人不愿他人干涉或他人不便干涉的个人私事,和当事人不愿他人侵入或他人不便侵入的个人领域。笔者比较赞同王利明先生对隐私权下的定义:隐私权是自然人享有的,对其个人的,与公共利益无关的个人信息、私人生活和私有领域进行支配的权利。
二、知情权的含义
知情权(The Right to Know)是一项比隐私权更晚提出的权利,是指公民知悉,获取信息的自由和权利。最早是由美国的一位著名新闻编辑肯特•库柏在一次演讲中提出来的。知情权的基本含义是公民有权知道他应该知道的事情,国家应该最大限度地确认和保障公民知悉、获取信息的权利,尤其是获悉政务信息的权利。《世界人权宣言》确认:人人有权享有通过任何媒介寻求、接受和传递信息和思想的自由。通常知情权可分为两类:一类是公众知情权,即社会大众了解国家机密的活动、国家官吏和公众人物的个人情况以及社会事件内容的权利;另一类是个人知情权,即公民个人了解虽为他人所有但涉及自己利益的他人情况、资料的权利。
隐私权重在保护个人信息,具有保守、封闭和自控的特点;知情权重在公众了解社会各种信息,具有公开、开放和外向的特点,二者具有天然的对抗性。该冲突反映到公众人物身上就更突出和尖锐。
三、明星隐私权分析
演艺明星被狗仔队跟踪偷拍的事件已经屡见不鲜,但随着狗仔队侵犯艺人隐私的范围越来越大,风潮愈演愈烈,众多艺人不得不开始呼吁政府加快对明星隐私权保护的立法,保护艺人的合法权益不再受到无理的侵犯。
演艺明星作为公众人物中的一部分到底有没有隐私权呢?笔者认为,根据我国法律规定,演艺明星也是民法规定的民事主体中的自然人,具有完全的民事主体资格,因此,他们应当享有一般的民事主体所享有的全部民事权利,当然也包括隐私权。但是,由于明星的知名度超过普通民众,明星们作为公众人物,其一言一行、一举一动都会产生强大的示范效应,他们的行为关乎国家、社会的利益或者公众的知情权,因此,就涉及对明星权利的限制。明星合理让渡一部分隐私权给公众不仅是尊重公众知情权的体现,也是社会监督和新闻自由的题中应有之意。也就是所谓的“公众人物无绝对的隐私权”。
在对明星个人的隐私权加以限制的同时,我们还要明确对侵犯明星隐私权的界定。在司法实践当中,不能一味地强调公众的知情权和新闻自由,在限制明星隐私权的同时也要确保其合法权益的不受侵害。我认为可以分为两大类:
1.对纯粹的私人信息的侵犯。比如对明星最私秘、最敏感的身体进行披露,发布他人的裸体照片,这会严重损害明星的名誉和人格尊严。再比如对明星性生活的报道,发布明星所谓的“露点”、“露底”的照片等行为,都是道德和法律所不能容忍的,这些行为都必须受到法律的追究。
2.对私人空间的侵犯。凡是属于私人支配的空间和场所,无论是有形的,还是虚拟的,都属于个人隐私的范畴。明星对这些私人空间享有隐私权,任何人未经其许可不可以擅自闯入其私人所有的、合法占有的房屋以及其他空间,也不得非法采用高倍望远镜、长焦距拍照等手段窥视明星的个人空间。
在认定媒体或者公众个人的行为是否构成对明星隐私权的侵犯时,应该遵循以下原则:
1.公序良俗原则。依据公序良俗原则所不应该为公众所知的信息,属于受保护的隐私权利范围之内,应该受到法律保护。
2.人格尊严不受侵犯原则。人格尊严是宪法赋予每个公民的权利,任何法律都不得违背,明星的人格尊严同样受到保护。在行使公众知情权的时候不得侵犯明星的人格尊严。
3.社会利益原则。明星作为公众人物,他们的事业不仅仅是自己的,也是社会的、公众的,公众有权利了解他们事业中,有关社会公共利益方面的内容和信息,而不涉及此的内容应该予以法律保护。
4.合理兴趣原则。当多数人对某个人或某件事产生了了解的愿望时,就产生了公众兴趣,这种兴趣必须是符合道德和法律标准的。公众的合理兴趣是满足公众知情权的前提。
四、保护明星隐私权的立法建议
目前,我国对隐私权属于间接保护的方式,并没有制定明确的保护隐私权的法律,即未将隐私权作为一项具体的人权,我国《民法通则》虽然没有对公民的隐私权及相关的侵权责任,但是我国宪法的有关条文明确规定了公民的人格尊严不受侵犯,公民的住宅不受侵犯,公民的通信自由与秘密受到法律保护。这些无疑都是保护公民隐私权的宪法渊源。我国刑法、刑事诉讼法、民事诉讼法、多数行政法律法规则直接规定了保护公民的隐私权。为了弥补民法通则在隐私权保护方面的遗漏,我国最高人民法院在司法解释中明确指出,揭露、宣扬他人隐私的行为,属于侵害名誉权的行为,应当依法承担民事责任。由于我国关于隐私权保护的法律尚不完善,而关于明星隐私权的限制与保护的特别规定更是几乎没有,因此,我在这里提几条立法建议:
1.独立保护。明星或者说公众人物是有关隐私权保护法律的特殊对象,他与普通民众有着天然的区别,因此对他的保护应具有针对性和独立性。在立法的过程中应当给予其独立的法律保护。
2.限制性与保护性并重。作为公众人物的明星,虽然其隐私权受到限制,但作为一个人,他的隐私权同样应该受到法律保护。在立法时不应该偏重任何一个方面,而应该限制与保护并举,没有偏废。
3.侵权问题的层次性。由于当前侵权性质的行为多种多样,因此,立法时应该考虑到侵权行为导致的损害结果程度的层次性,并据此设定不同的惩罚方法。
(作者单位:江苏省扬州市江都区人民法院)
PROTECTION OF WAGES ON INSOLVENCY ORDINANCE ——附加英文版
Hong Kong
PROTECTION OF WAGES ON INSOLVENCY ORDINANCE
(CHAPTER 380)
CONTENTS
ion
I PRELIMINARY
hort title
nterpretation
II PROTECTION OF WAGES ON INSOLVENCY FUND BOARD
stablishment and incorporation of Wages on Insolvency Fund Board
unctions and powers of the Board
oard to be subject to directions of the Governor in Council
III FUND
stablishment of Protection of Wages on Insolvency Fund
ayments from the Fund
IV FINANCIAL PROVISIONS
inancial year and estimates
ank account
Investment of moneys
Accounts
Auditors
Statements and reports to be laid on table of Legislative Council
Costs of administering the Fund
V PAYMENT FROM THE FUND
Entitlement to apply for ex gratia payment
Payment
Review by Board
Additional power of Commissioner
Verification of application
Decisions under this Part not to be challenged
Power of Commissioner to delegate
Payment not to affect right to legal aid
Proof by certificate
VI RECOVERY OF PAYMENTS
Subrogation
Recovery of payment made by mistake
VII MISCELLANEOUS
Offences
Regulations
Power of Governor to amend Schedule
Transitional
dule Protection of Wages on Insolvency Fund Board
rovide for the establishment of a board to administer the
Protection
ages on Insolvency Fund, to provide for payment of monies from
the
to employees whose employers become insolvent; and for matters
ected therewith or incidental thereto.
April 1985] L. N. 100 of 1985
PART I PRELIMINARY
hort title
Ordinance may be cited as the Protection of Wages on
Insolvency
nance.
nterpretation
his Ordinance, unless the context otherwise requires--
licant" means any person who would, on the winding up of a company,
be
tled to priority under section 265 (1) (b), (c), (ca) or (cc) of
the
anies Ordinance (Cap. 32) or who would, on a bankruptcy, be
entitled
riority under section 38 (1) (b), (c), (ca) or (cc) of the
Bankruptcy
nance (Cap. 6) other than a person whose employer is an individual
and
is a member of the family of that employer and who dwells in the
same
ling as that employer; (Amended 48 of 1987 s. 2; 38 of 1989 s.
2)
kruptcy petition" means a bankruptcy petition under the
Bankruptcy
nance (Cap. 6);
rd" means the Protection of Wages on Insolvency Fund Board
established
ection 3;
missioner" means the Commissioner for Labour;
pany" means any body which is liable to be wound up
under the
anies Ordinance (Cap. 32);
ancial year" means the financial year of the Fund fixed under
section
Fund" means the Protection of Wages on Insolvency Fund referred
to in
ion 6;
y" has the meaning assigned to it by section 2 of the
Business
stration Ordinance (Cap. 310);
everance payment" means a severance payment payable by an
employer to
mployee under section 31B (1) of the Employment Ordinance (Cap.
57);
laced 45 of 1991 s. 2)
"wages" means wages or salary in respect of
h an applicant would, on the winding up of a company, be entitled
to
rity under section 265 (1) (b) or (c) of the Companies Ordinance
(Cap.
or who would, on a bankruptcy, be entitled to priority under
section
1) (b) or (c) of the Bankruptcy Ordinance (Cap. 6), save
that the
nt specified in section 265 (1) (b) or (c) of the Companies
Ordinance
. 32) or section 38 (1) (b) or (c) of the Bankruptcy Ordinance
(Cap.
as the case may be) as the maximum amount in respect of
which an
icant would be entitled to priority, or any amount
substituted
efor under section 265 (1A) or (1B) of the Companies Ordinance
(Cap.
or (as the case may be) section 38 (2), (2A) or (2B) of the
Bankruptcy
nance (Cap. 6), shall not apply; (Amended 15 of 1993 s. 2)
"wages in lieu of notice" means wages in lieu of notice in respect
of
h an applicant would, on the winding up of a company, be entitled
to
rity under section 265 (1) (cc) of the Companies Ordinance (Cap.
32),
ould, in a bankruptcy, be entitled to priority under section 38
(1)
of the Bankruptcy Ordinance (Cap. 6), save that the amount
specified
ection 265 (1) (cc) of the Companies Ordinance (Cap. 32) or
section 38
(cc) of the Bankruptcy Ordinance (Cap. 6) (as the case may be)
as the
mum amount in respect of which an applicant would be
entitled to
rity shall not apply; (Added 48 of 1987 s. 2. Amended 15 of 1993
s. 2)
ding-up petition" means a winding-up petition under Part V or X
of the
anies Ordinance (Cap. 32).
PART II PROTECTION OF WAGES ON INSOLVENCY FUND BOARD
stablishment and incorporation of Wages on Insolvency Fund Board
There is hereby established a board to be known as the Protection
of
s on Insolvency Fund Board and in the Chinese language as which
shall
body corporate.
The Board shall consist of a Chairman appointed under the Schedule
and
more than 10 members appointed by the Governor as follows--
subject to paragraph (b) not more than 4 public officers;
equal numbers of persons who, in his opinion, represent employers
and
ons who, in his opinion, represent employees.
The Governor shall give notice of each appointment by notice in
the
tte.
The Schedule shall have effect with respect to the Board.
unctions and powers of the Board
The Board shall have the following functions--
to administer the Fund;
to make recommendations to the Governor with respect to the
rate of
; and
to perform such other duties as are imposed or other powers as
are
erred on it by this Ordinance.
The Board may do all such things as are necessary for, or
incidental
onducive to, the better carrying out of the functions of the Board
and
in particular, but without prejudice to the generality
of the
going--
hold, acquire or lease all kinds of property whether
movable or
vable;
sell or otherwise dispose of all kinds of property whether movable
or
vable;
subject to section 10, invest its funds in such manner and to
such
nt as it thinks necessary or expedient; and
with the prior consent of the Financial Secretary, borrow
money in
manner and on such securities or terms as it thinks expedient.
oard to be subject to directions of the Governor in Council
Governor in Council may give to the Board such directions as he
thinks
with respect to the exercise of its functions under this Ordinance
and
Board shall comply with any such direction.
PART III FUND
stablishment of Protection of Wages on Insolvency Fund
fund known as the Protection of Wages on Insolvency Fund
established
r the provisions of section 21 of the Business Registration
Ordinance
. 310) in force immediately before the commencement of this
Ordinance
l be deemed to be established and continue in existence under
this
ion, and shall consist of--
moneys that are paid by the Commissioner of Inland Revenue under
that
ion whether paid before or after the commencement of this
Ordinance;
moneys recovered under Part VI;
interest and other income derived from the moneys and
investments
rising the Fund; and
other moneys lawfully paid into the Fund.
ayments from the Fund
e shall be paid from the Fund the following--
payments to applicants under section 16;
expenses incurred by the Board for the purposes of this Ordinance;
capital, interest and charges in respect of any loan; and
any other sums required or permitted to be paid by the Fund under
this
nance.
PART IV FINANCIAL PROVISIONS
inancial year and estimates
The Board may, from time to time, with the prior approval
of the
rnor, fix a period to be the financial year of the Fund.
In each financial year, before a date to be fixed by the Governor,
the
d shall submit to the Governor, for his approval, estimates
of the
me and expenditure of the Fund for the next financial year:
ided that the estimates for the first financial year of the Fund
shall
ubmitted as soon as practicable after the commencement
of this
nance.
The Governor shall consider the estimates submitted to
him under
ection (2) and may approve or reject them and, in the
case of
ction, may require the Board to resubmit the estimates
modified in
manner and within such time as the Governor may direct.
The Board may, from time to time, vary the estimates approved
under
ection (3) and shall, as soon as practicable, deliver to the
Governor
atement in writing containing details of any variation.
ank account
Board shall open and maintain an account with a bank approved by
the
ncial Secretary and shall pay all moneys of the Fund
into that
unt.
Investment of moneys
moneys of the Fund that are not immediately required by the Board
may
deposited on fixed term or call deposit or in a savings account
in
bank licensed under the Banking Ordinance (Cap. 155); or
with the prior approval of the Financial Secretary, invested in
such
r investments as the Board thinks fit.
Accounts
Board shall--
keep and maintain such accounts and records of all transactions
of the
as the Director of Accounting Services may require; and
after the end of each financial year cause to be prepared a
statement
he accounts of the Fund which shall include an income and
expenditure
unt and balance sheet and shall be signed by the Chairman.
Auditors
The Board shall at the commencement of each financial year
appoint
tors, who shall be entitled to have access to all books of
account,
hers and other records kept by the Board and to
require such
rmation and explanations as they may think fit.
The auditors shall audit the statement of accounts prepared
under
ion 11 and shall report thereon to the Board.
Statements and reports to be laid on table of Legislative Council
The Board shall, within 6 months after the end of each financial
year
uch further time as the Governor may for any particular year
allow,
it to the Governor a report on the activities of the Board for
that
ncial year including copies of the statement of accounts
prepared
r section 11 and the report made under section 12.
The Governor shall cause the reports and statements received
by him
r subsection
to be laid on the table of the Legislative Council.
Costs of administering the Fund
All costs and expenses incurred by the Government in
administering the
shall be a charge upon general revenue.
The Financial Secretary may direct that a supervision fee
to be
rmined by him, in relation to such period as may be determined
by him,
l be charged against the income of the Fund and shall at a
time
rmined by him be paid to him by the Board from the Fund and paid
by
into general revenue.
PART V PAYMENT FROM THE FUND
Entitlement to apply for ex gratia payment
Subject to this Part, an applicant to whom--
wages are due and unpaid;
wages in lieu of notice are due and unpaid; or
the liability to be paid a severance payment has arisen
and the
rance payment is unpaid, whether or not the severance payment is
then
may apply for an ex gratia payment from the Fund in respect of
the
s, wages in lieu of notice or the severance payment, as the case
may
or all or any of them. (Replaced 38 of 1989 s. 3)
An application under subsection (1) (in this Part called an
lication" ) shall be made to the Commissioner in writing in a
form
oved by him. (Amended 48 of 1987 s. 3)
No applicant shall apply for payment from the Fund in respect of
any
s for services rendered before 1 April 1985.
No applicant shall apply for payment from the Fund in respect of
wages
ieu of notice arising out of a contract of employment
terminated
re the commencement of the Protection of Wages on Insolvency
ndment) Ordinance 1987 (48 of 1987). (Added 48 of 1987 s. 3)
No applicant shall apply for payment from the Fund in respect
of a
rance payment the liability for payment of which arose
before the
encement of the Protection of Wages on Insolvency
(Amendment)
nance 1989 (38 of 1989). (Added 38 of 1989 s. 3)
Payment
Subject to subsections (1B) and (2) where it appears
to the
issioner that an employer has failed to pay any wages, wages in
lieu
otice or severance payment, as the case may be, or all or any of
them
n applicant and that--
in the case of an employer who is not a company--
a bankruptcy petition has been presented against him; or
he has committed an act of bankruptcy within the meaning of
section 3
he Bankruptcy Ordinance (Cap. 6) but a petition cannot be
presented
nst him by reason of section 6 (1) (a) of that Ordinance; or
(Replaced
f 1988 s. 2)
in the case of an employer who is a company, a winding-uppetition
has
presented against that employer,
ay make an ex gratia payment to the applicant out of the Fund of
the
nt of the wages, wages in lieu of notice or severance payment,
as the
may be, or all or any of them.
When the Commissioner makes a payment under subsection (1) (a)
(ii),
hall give notice of the payment and the reasons therefor
in the
tte. (Added 41 of 1988 s. 2)
Where an application has been made in respect of a severance
payment
h is not due at the date of the application, the
Commissioner may
r consideration of the application until the severance payment
becomes
(Added 38 of 1989 s. 4)
The Commissioner shall not make any payment under subsection
(1)--
to the applicant unless the applicant has verified his
application by
atutory declaration in a form approved by the Commissioner;
) of an amount exceeding $18,000 in respect of wages; (Replaced
15 of
s. 3)
) (Repealed 15 of 1993 s. 3)
in respect of wages for services rendered more than 4 months prior
to
date of application;
in respect of wages in lieu of notice--
) of an amount exceeding--
the equivalent of 1 month's wages of the applicant; or
$6,000,
hever is the lesser; or (Amended 15 of 1993 s. 3)
subject to subsection (2A), which became due more than 4 months
prior
he date of application; or (Replaced 38 of 1989 s. 4)
in respect of a severance payment--
of an amount exceeding the aggregate of $8,000 and half of that
part
he applicant's entitlement to severance payment in excess of
$8,000;
Replaced 45 of 1991 s. 3)
the liability for payment of which arose more than 4 months prior
to
date of application. (Added 38 of 1989 s. 4)
Subsection (2) (e) (ii) shall not apply to wages in lieu of
notice
ing out of a contract of employment terminated before the
commencement
he Protection of Wages on Insolvency (Amendment) Ordinance 1989
(38 of
). (Added 38 of 1989 s. 4)
) The Legislative Council may be
lution amend the period specified in subsection (2) (e) (i) (A)
or the
nt specified in subsection (2) (b), (e) (i) (B) or (f) (i).
(Added 48
987 s. 4. Amended 15 of 1993 s. 3)
nded 48 of 1987 s. 4; 38 of 1989 s. 4)
Review by Board
Any applicant aggrieved by any decision of the Commissioner
under
ion 16 may in writing--
request the Commissioner to give reasons for that decision; and
after being given reasons under paragraph (a),
request the
issioner to refer the application to the Board.
Upon receiving a request from an applicant under subsection (1)
(b),
Commissioner shall forward all documents relating to the
application
he Chairman of the Board.
The Board may confirm or vary any decision of the Commissioner
on an
ication referred to it under this section or may for those
purposes
ire the Commissioner to make further inquiries relating
to the
ication.
Additional power of Commissioner
Notwithstanding that in any particular case a petition referred
to in
ion 16 (1) (a) (i) or (b) has not been presented against an
employer,
Commissioner may, subject to subsection (2) of that section,
make an
ratia payment under that section in that case if in his opinion--
nded, 41 of 1988 s. 3)
the employer employs less than 20 employees;
sufficient evidence exists to support the presentation of a
petition
hat case on the ground--
if the employer is a company, that he is unable to pay his debts;
or
if the employer is a person other than a company, that
he has
itted an act of bankruptcy; and
it is unreasonable or uneconomic to present a petition in that
case.
Where the Commissioner exercises his discretion under
subsection (1)
ake payment, he shall give notice in the Gazette stating that,
in his
ion, sufficient evidence exists to support the
presentation of a
tion on the ground--
if the employer is a company, that he is unable to pay his debts;
or
if the employer is a person other than a company, that
he has
itted an act of bankruptcy.
Nothing in subsection (2) shall require the Commissioner to give
more
one notice in respect of each employer.
No action shall lie against the Commissioner in respect of any
notice
n under subsection (2).
Verification of application
For the purpose of verifying any application under section 15,
or if
equired by the Board under section 17 (3), the Commissioner may
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